1	9 Domains of Development 1. Physical-Maturational 2. Cognitive-Intellectual 3. Artistic-Creative 4. Linguistic-Communicative Knowledge-Skill Social-Interpersonal Moral-Ethical 8. Personality-Individuality 9. Emotional-Affective
2	Theorists Connected with Each of the 9 Domains of Development 1. Physical-Maturational (Gesell) 2. Cognitive-Intellectual (Piaget, Damon) 3. Social-Interpersonal (Youniss, Selman, Damon) 4. Moral-Ethical (Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan, Hoffman, Damon) 5. Knowledge-Skill (Vygotsky, Damon) 6. Linguistic (Chomsky) 7. Artistic-Creative (Lowenfeld, Gardner) 8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby, Ainsworth) 9. Emotional-Affective (Hoffman, Kagan)
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4	Some Developmental Mechanisms
5	Three issues addressed by developmental theorists Continuity or Discontinuity of Growth Can development be characterized as a gradual change process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of change? The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience Is development primarily influenced by biologically inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental experiences (nature or nurture)? Individual Differences What makes individuals different? To what extent are individual characteristics stable over time?
6	Some theories view development as a relatively continuous process. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is discontinuous and involves periodic qualitative milestone changes.
7	Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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9	Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four stages marked by qualitatively different modes of thinking. Interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think.
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16	Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively. Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where am I going?” The stages are described above in terms of personality traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises.
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22	Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition) Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors via relationships. Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people, usually parents and teachers. The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they may be close to having the necessary mental skills, they need guidance in order to complete the tasks. Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to children’s needs.
23	Vygotsky’s Theory of Development Zone of Proximal Development encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but within their capacity to learn with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children. Scaffolding involves changing the level of support over the course of teaching something — the more skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of guidance to fit students’ current performance level. Language and Thought: young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this “inner speech” or private speech.
24	Ecological Theories of Human Development
25	Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Environmental Systems: microsystem: setting where individual lives mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems comprising the local community exosystem: experiences in the larger social system or society of which the microsystem and mesosystem are parts macrosystem: the individual’s culture chronosystem: environmental events and transitions over time
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27	Prenatal Development
28	Biological-Maturational Theories of Development � Emphasize the genetic, biological, and evolutionary basis of human development. � The central concept is maturation — a genetically predetermined sequence of physical and psychophysiological changes. These changes take place at about the same age for most people. � The environment has a significant influence on when changes occur and the degree of growth that takes place.
29	Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement (K.M.B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability .
30	Temperament The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive, arousal, and self-regulatory components of personality. These are evident in infancy in the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability, etc. In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2-3 months of age. They identified tree types of temperament evident in infancy: Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood (mild to moderate intensity); quick adaptability; Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent negative mood of high intensity; slow adaptability; Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses ( mild to moderate intensity); slow adaptability. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for temperament: Inherited, present early in development, predictive of later personality development. Buss, A., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early personality traits. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Side by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
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32	Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development The mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways: Severely inadequate nutrition Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems Increased risk of mental disorders later in life Drug use Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly (small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor abnormalities, abnormal facial features. The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social skills. Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked to birth defects. Viral Illnesses Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness, and (c) the medications taken. Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause extreme abnormalities or death.
33	Attachment Theory Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to respond to it’s caregiver. Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors promote close proximity to the caregiver so that the child can be protected from danger. Type of attachment is influenced by care-giving behavior; children can be categorized as: Secure Ambivalent (seek comfort but show anger or resistance) Avoidant Insecure-disorganized
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35	Infant reunion responses following their separation from their mothers: Secure (B type) behavior positive, greeting of mother, being comforted Avoidant (A type) behavior not seeking contact, avoiding gaze Ambivalent (C type) behavior not comforted, overly passive, show anger Disorganised (D type) Behavior totally disorganised and confused
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37	Correspondence Between Child & Adult Attachment Styles
38	In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached.
39	Bowlby’s Attachment Stages Birth to 2-3 months Undiscriminating social responsivenss 2-3 months to 6-7 months Discriminating social responsiveness 6-7 months to 3 years Active proximity seeking /true attachment 3 years and older Goal-corrected partnership
40	Separation Distress: Another Indicator of Attachment
41	"Attachment Theory Research Findings" Attachment Theory Research Findings Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to secure attachment. Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415-426. Lamb et al., (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable. Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127-171. Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem solvers than insecurely attached infants. Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs. Crandell, L.E. and Hobson, R.P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 455-464(10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their activities with friends more harmoniously than others. Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076-1081. Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63-76 Sroufe et al., (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that 10-11 year old children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes.” Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to manage at home and school (e.g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc.). Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood. Child Development, 61, 1363-1373. Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships. In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.) Relationships as developmental context: The 29th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Fonagy et al., (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children were more competent on various mental tasks. Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 51-61.
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43	Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind Authoritarian Child is told, “Do it because I said so!” A punitive and highly controlling parenting style Only concerned about obedience Authoritative Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication and high expectations for moral maturity Are less likely to use physical punishment Involve children in decisions and rule-making Permissive Loose and inconsistent structure Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel comfortable making. Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http://www.devpsy.org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles.html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43-88.
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45	What parenting style is best? Outcomes associated with different styles Authoritarian Lack of social competence Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights Most social contact confined to deviant peers Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality Authoritative Greater self-reliance and self-confidence More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others Permissive Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective Limitations of research Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white, middle class children and adolescents) Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles.
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47	Development of “Prosocial” Behavior Pro-social behavior is the aspect of moral conduct that includes socially desirable behaviors such as sharing, helping, and cooperating. Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies cry when they hear the crying of other babies but not when they hear tape-recorded crying ─ suggests at least a primitive level of global empathy Martin Hoffman traced the development of empathy through four stages.
48	Development of empathy Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy. Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following: emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy) during the second year, babies actively attempt to comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms has been shown in reactions to staged events such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle. preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings and can empathize with people they have not met including story characters they can only imagine and people they learn about through the media. between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to empathize with people based on their knowledge of troublesome social-environmental conditions such as being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative.
49	The Development of Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlberg Explained how children and teens develop a sense of right and wrong (an ethic of justice) Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather than behavior or moral emotion Examined the nature and progression of moral reasoning or judgment through several stages. He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning: Preconventional Punishment orientation (stage 1) Reward orientation (stage 2) Conventional Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3) Respect for authority orientation (stage 4) Postconventional Social contract orientation (stage 5) Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6)
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51	Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas about fairness (positive justice), and how they thought rewards and resources should be divided-up or distributed. A sample story: A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some children drew well; others did not. Some children were well-behaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the students who painted pictures?
52	Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel, Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon found that ideas of fairness develop through a sequence of levels: Under age 4, children simply state their desires and give no reason for their choice. Four and five year old kids state their desires but justify their choices on the basis of external factors (e.g. ¨we should get more because we are girls, or . . . we are bigger¨)
53	Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon Five to seven year old children believe that equality is the only fair way to divvy up valued rewards, and they will argue their point. No mitigating circumstances for them For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and need enter into children’s moral reasoning. They start to take into account all the factors involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in each situations — a case by case decision.
54	Reasoning and Actual Behavior How does the thinking of young children about fairness correspond to their behavior in the real world? Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old children were asked to divide candy bars given to their group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets. Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each person should get the same number of candy bars. Older children were better able to adjust the outcome to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions made by each group member. In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their concept level in the simulated situations. In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level. In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy made a real difference.
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